A Supplement to the A Writer’s Resource
(To be placed between
section 21 and 22)
TEXTHUGGING ( “TH” )
When you borrow or refer
to information or ideas from someone else (see WR pages 188-189, “Avoiding
Plagiarism” and “Determining What Is Common
Knowledge”), you have two choices. Either:
·
Quote precisely (WR
sec. 22 b, 61 a, h) and enclose in quotation marks or
·
Paraphrase (WR sec. 21
b.2, 22 c ), meaning translate completely
into your own words.
It is best to hold quotations to a minimum and to
paraphrase most borrowed material, but either way, AVOID TEXTHUGGING, which means almost a direct quotation but
only partially paraphrased or incomplete translation that is too close
to the original text in wording and sentence structure (WR p. 183).
1. Definition and Function of Documentation
Whether you quote or paraphrase, borrowed information or ideas referenced must be documented. Documentation is a multi-step process or system of acknowledging sources of information used in research writing. The system provides two functions:
· Writer credibility
Evidence of having done “homework” on the subject
Demonstration of honesty in scholarship
· Reader access to sources of information
Documentation is required for:
· A direct quotation
· A paraphrase of a source’s idea
· Pointing to a source for further study
· Reference to sources in a “review of literature”
a. List of Works Cited as the Anchor (MLA, WR sec 25; APA sec. 30)
At the end of the essay, on a separate page, is the alphabetical list of sources mentioned or referenced in the paper with every detail a reader needs to locate the published sources. The Works Cited follows a format prescribed by the style, in this case, MLA. The format for various secondary sources is demonstrated , as well as primary research (e.g., personal, telephone, or e-mail interviews).
The first element of a citation (usually an author’s last and first names or an article title, in the case of no author indicated) is the key term that must be included in an in-text clue.
b. In-text Clues
A writer must indicate locations within the
essay when information has been borrowed or referenced--not only quotations but
paraphrases and pointers as well. The
two methods are reciprocal, i.e., the more information provided in the first,
the less required (sometimes none) in the other.
· Introductory Attribution Signals ( “Att” )
To avoid “dropped-in” quotations or paraphrases, a signal phrase clues the reader for borrowed ideas or words: According to Howard Forcum.... or Forcum speculates that.... (WR p. 187). Proper attribution is not always accomplished with one introductory signal. If you borrow several ideas from a source throughout a paragraph or passage, distinguish your own comments from those of the source with generous reminders to the reader that you are switching back: “Forcum goes on to claim...” or “Later he argues….”
NOTE: In an attribution signal phrase, include the element of greatest credibility, authority, or reputation for the source, whether the author’s credentials or the title of the publication.
· Closing Parenthetical Citations (WR 24)
Clues to documentation are sometimes enclosed in parentheses, following borrowed information, either within the sentence or before end punctuation. Unless it has been mentioned in the introductory attribution signal, the citation must point to the key term of the respective entry in the Works Cited, either the author’s last name or, in the case of no author, the document or article title, which may be abbreviated if it is long. If the attribution is to a third party cited within the source you cite, place qtd. in before the key term for the source you’re using .
Either the introductory attribution signal or a parenthetical citation must contain the key term (first element) in the Works Cited entry.
3.
Mechanics of Documentation (The following
instructions in part a. and part b. apply to MLA style, not to APA
a. Page numbers in parenthetical citations:
If you used the original print version of a source, and if it has more than one page, the parenthetical citation includes the page number on which the information appeared. For example, following the passage for which the attribution signal does not contain the key term from the Works Cited, material borrowed from page 23 of Forcum’s article is cited with no punctuation or abbreviation (Forcum 23). If the key term in the Works Cited entry is named in the attribution signal, the citation uses only the page number: Forcum states, “Direct quotation” (23).
No parenthetical citation is necessary at all
· if you are using a one-page printed source or an electronic version of even a multipage source
· and if your attribution signal names the key term in the Works Cited entry.
If the
attribution signal does not refer to the key term in the Works Cited, the
parenthetical citation is necessary: In a recent article in Time
magazine, one author states, “Direct quotation” or paraphrase (Forcum 23).
b. Coordinating attribution signals with parenthetical citations:
The attribution signal should contain the characteristic that lends the greatest credibility to the source. If the author has authoritative credentials, they are more important than a name but may or may not accompany the name: The mayor of Lyndon, Howard Forcum, states, “[quotation]” (23). One small town mayor was quoted as saying, “Direct quotation” or paraphrase (Forcum 23).
If the author’s credentials are not indicated in the source, it may be best to rely on the reputation of the journal, magazine, or newspaper title in the attribution signal: A recent article in Newsweek offers the explanation that “Direct quotation” or paraphrase (Forcum 23).
Try to include as much information as possible in the attribution signal for the first reference to an author and source, eliminating the need for frequent or lengthy parenthetical citations. After a source’s credentials are established in your text, subsequent references may be the author’s last name in the introductory attribution signal or in the closing parentheses.
c. Integrating borrowed material into your own writing:
If you intend to rely heavily on a particular source for information scattered throughout a certain passage in a paper, the opening attribution signal should contain as much information about the significance of the author and/or document as possible in order to justify heavy borrowing. You should also provide generous follow-up attribution clues scattered throughout the passage to acknowledge the origin of the ideas. Be sure to provide transitional phrases to let the reader know when you switch back and forth between a source’s idea and your own.
When the dominant voice in a paper should be yours, avoid relying heavily on any one source or group of sources. Most academic assignments ask not for scrapbooks of expert opinions and outside information, but rather for your own critical thinking on the topic supported by some outside evidence.